Combined Heat And Power
www.CombinedHeatAndPower.net

Cogeneration & Trigeneration Project Development

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The Renewable Energy Institute

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Now Offering Our 40% High-efficiency HCPV Solar Technology
for Solar Power Parks Located in the Southwest U.S.

OUR HCPV SOLAR TECHNOLOGY

HCPV, or "High Concentration PhotoVoltaic," represents the highest efficiencies available in solar PV technologies.

The Renewable Energy Institute, in partnership with a U.S. based engineering company with over 30 years R&D in HCPV technology, is now offering this technology for locations in the Southwest U.S. The Solar HCPV company specializes in the design, research/development and distribution of this HCPV technology which is about to surpass the 40% efficiency barrier. While many of today solar PV panels are considered "efficient" at 15%, our HCPV technology is already at 40% efficiency, and in the near future, we will be increasing our efficiency to over 60%.

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While 15-16% efficient PV panels are still in high demand—mostly due to financial subsidies and incentives—these 15-16% efficient PV panels are NOT profitable without the economic incentives. Our HCPV technology is profitable from day one, even without financial incentives Investment Tax Credits, Feed In Tariffs, or any other government subsidies. Thus, we foresee our HCPV solar technology to be the technology of choice not only in the short-term, but the long-term as well.

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Finally, and most importantly, our HCPV solar technology does NOT decrease in efficiency with time; which is the case with all other PV technologies available today.

Please review the following information regarding our HCPV solar technology and call the Renewable Energy Institute at (512) 772-3500 with any questions or information.

Engineering/project development services available for qualified clients with solar power parks located in the Southwest U.S.

1cm2 Germanium HCPV solar cell
mounted on a heat sink, operates
at 525 suns concentration, and
produces approx. 20W DC power.

Performance characteristics of our HCPV Solar Cells
under actual working conditions

PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT PV TECHNOLOGIES

Developers/Investors of Solar Power Parks:

Our Utility Scale HCPV Solar Power Plants have the Highest Efficiencies & Lowest Operating Costs and Lowest Levelized Cost of Energy Using Less than 1% of the Water Required by Typical Power Plants (including Concentrating Solar Power Plants)

Minimum Size HCPV Solar Power System: 1 MW
Warranty: 10 Years
Approximate Cost: $3.75 million
Area required: 3 acres
Time to install: 6-9 months after signed agreement

Preferred Minimum Project Size:
10 MW with 35 Acres in Southwest U.S. Location

Now Developing Solar Power Plants With Our
Preferred HCPV Solar Technologies in:
Arizona, California, Nevada, New Mexico & Texas

Developers of Solar Power Parks interested in our solar power plant development
services or HCPV solar technology call/ email with details relating to your project:

info@HighConcentrationPhotovoltaic.com

info@HCPV.org

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We Know Solar Energy! ^sm

Greenhouse Gas Emissions Market worth $2 Trillion
by 2012 according to the United Nations
Full story found on following link:

http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=433&ArticleID=4792&l=en

GRID PARITY NOW REACHED
IN MANY STATES!
SOLAR POWER AND ENERGY NOW
CHEAPER THAN COAL!

We Design/Engineer, Sell, Finance, Install, Operate and Maintain:
Utility Scale Solar Power Plants, including:

Concentrated Solar Power Plants
Concentrating Photovoltaic Power Plants
Concentrating Solar Power Plants
High Concentration Photovoltaic Power Plants

We Design/Engineer, Sell, Finance, Install, Operate and Maintain:
Solar Energy Systems, including;

Solar Heating and Cooling
Solar Absorption Cooling Systems
Solar Electric Power Systems
Solar Water Heating Systems
Solar Cogeneration Energy Systems
Solar Trigeneration Energy Systems
Solar Thermal Collectors
Evacuated Tube Collectors

Commercial, Government, Municipal & Utility Customers:

You may qualify for our zero up-front cost
Solar Energy System or Solar Trigeneration^sm Energy System
that we can install at your business
or facility with our Power Purchase Agreement,

To receive our no cost, no obligation proposal,
simply email us your business' or facility's past 12 months:

1. electric utility expenses (invoices)

2. natural gas utility expenses (invoices)

Send the above via email to: info@PowerPurchaseAgreement.com

PPA Funding for Power Purchase Agreements
and Solar Power Purchase Agreements
Now Available Through PPA Funding Partners
for Qualified Commercial, Industrial, Municipal/Government Clients

Power Purchase Agreement
www.PowerPurchaseAgreement.com

by PPA Funding Partners

Providing Capital and Funding for Power Purchase Agreements
and Solar Power Purchase Agreements Through the

PPA Fund ^sm
(planning and formation stage)

Renewable Energy Tax Credits and Solar Investment Tax Credits
Now Available for our Joint Venture Solar Power Partnerships

Solar PV Panels
Now Available at Special Pricing!

Due to Our Large Volume Buying Discount,
We Are Now Offering Our Manufacturer's
Solar Panels at Special Discounted Pricing.

Available Now - By Container Only

Each Container Has 560 Solar Panels
Each Solar Panel is 200 Watts
112 kW/Container

CALL FOR PRICING!

Our Preferred Solar PV Panels are
Approximately 17% Efficient and
Have had Zero Defects, with Zero Recalls to Date.
25 Year Manufacturer's Warranty

Once Payment Has Been Received, Your Solar PV Panels Will Arrive at Your Designated Port Within 3-6 Weeks.

For More Information On Purchasing One or More
Containers of our Preferred Solar PV Panels:

Call (832) 758 - 0027

or

Email: info@PowerPurchaseAgreement.com

Solar Power and Energy Services Include:

Solar Energy Feasibility
Solar Power Feasibility
Solar Feasibility
Solar Feasibility Studies

* No Cost Solar Cogeneration and
Solar Trigeneration Energy Systems
for Qualified Commercial, Industrial &
Municipal/Government Customers

* Terms and Conditions for Free Solar Power System include: (1) For qualified commercial clients only. (2) Minimum size rating of 500 kW solar power system. (3) Minimum monthly electric usage requirements apply. (4) Subject to credit approval. (5) Other conditions may apply, depending on location, utility restrictions and regulations.

We Help Our Commercial Clients - NATIONWIDE - Go Solar...
Really Fast, Simple and Easy, with ZERO Upfront-costs
(for qualified commercial clients)
with our Solar Power Purchase Agreement

Providing project development services including;
Renewable Energy Investments, Project Finance (including
Tax Equity Investment and Tax Equity Financing),
and Funding of Power Purchase Agreements

Now Making Solar Land Acquisitions and Developing Solar Power Plants in: Arizona, California, Nevada, New Mexico & Texas

Call/email for more information

Tel. (832) 758 - 0027

Email: info@ConcentratingPhotovoltaic.com

Leading the Net Zero Energy^sm & Net Zero Energy Building^sm Revolution!

Our Net Zero Energy Building^sm upgrades "brown" buildings to "green" buildings, with our Solar Trigeneration^sm energy system, similar to one installed on a 5,000 sq. ft. office building that has been operating "dis-connected" from the electric grid for 6 years. And, the owners received one of the first Platinum LEED awards in the U.S.

Customers that could benefit from having their "brown" building upgraded to a "green" building with one of our Solar Trigeneration^sm energy systems include:

Casinos
Churches (with schools)
Cities
Colleges
Condos
Convenience Stores
Data Centers
Department Stores
Government facilities
Health Clubs
Hospitals
Hotels
Laundries
Manufacturing
Office Buildings/campuses
Radio and Television Stations
Restaurants
Schools
Server Farms
Shopping Centers
Universities

For many qualified commercial customers, we will install our Solar Trigeneration^sm energy system
(or one of our other Solar Energy Systems) at your business....

with no up-front costs!

and sell the "pollution free power" power and energy to your business - for LESS than what you are presently paying your utility company/companies!

Whether your business purchases one of our solutions or we install - own - operate - and maintain the Solar Energy System solution on behalf of your business through our Power Purchase Agreement and sell the power and energy to your business at a discount - your business will have lower power and energy expenses while significantly reducing your greenhouse gas emissions.

For inquiries about one of our products and services, or help in making your business or facility a "Net Zero Energy"^sm business, contact us by email or phone:

Tel (832) 758 - 0027

info@NetZeroEnergy.com

For More Information About Reducing or Eliminating
Your Company's Carbon Emissions, or Upgrading your Company's
Buildings/Facility with a Combined Heat And Power System, call/email:

Tel. (832) 758 - 0027

info@NetZeroEnergy.com

info@CombinedHeatAndPower.net

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

What is Combined Heat and Power?

Combined heat and power, also known as "cogeneration" or CHP, and total energy, is an efficient, clean, and reliable approach to generating power and thermal energy from a single fuel source. That is, cogeneration uses heat that is otherwise discarded from conventional power generation to produce thermal energy. This energy is used to provide cooling or heating for industrial facilities, district energy systems, and commercial buildings. By recycling this waste heat, cogeneration systems achieve typical effective electric efficiencies of 70% to 80% — a dramatic improvement over the average 33% efficiency of conventional fossil-fueled power plants. Cogeneration's higher efficiencies reduce air emissions of nitrous oxides, sulfur dioxide, mercury, particulate matter, and carbon dioxide, the leading greenhouse gas emissions associated with climate change.

More About Cogeneration

Cogeneration now produces almost 10% of our nation's electricity, saves its customers up to 40% on their energy expenses, and provides even greater savings to our environment.

Cogeneration, as previously described above, is also known as “combined heat and power” (CHP), cogen, district energy, total energy, and combined cycle, is the simultaneous production of heat (usually in the form of hot water and/or steam) and power, utilizing one primary fuel.

Cogeneration technology is not the latest industry buzz-word being touted as the solution to our nation's energy woes. Cogeneration is a proven technology that has been around for over 100 years. Our nation's first commercial power plant was a cogeneration plant that was designed and built by Thomas Edison in 1882 in New York. Primary fuels commonly used in cogeneration include natural gas, oil, diesel fuel, propane, coal, wood, wood-waste and bio-mass. These "primary" fuels are used to make electricity, a "secondary" fuel. This is why electricity, when compared on a btu to btu basis, is typically 3-5 times more expensive than primary fuels such as natural gas.

An example of a cogeneration process would be the automobile in which the primary fuel (gasoline) is burned in an internal combustion engine - this produces both mechanical and electrical energy (cogeneration). These combined energies, derived from the combustion process of the car's engine, operate the various systems of the automobile, including the drive-train or transmission (mechanical power), lights (electrical power), air conditioning (mechanical and electrical power), and heating of the car's interior when heat is required to keep the car's occupants warm. This heat, which is manufactured by the engine during the combustion process, was “captured” from the engine and then re-directed to the passenger compartment.

Due to competitive pressures to cut costs and reduce emissions of air pollutants and greenhouse gasses, owners and operators of industrial and commercial facilities are actively looking for ways to use energy more efficiently. One option is cogeneration, also known as combined heat and power (CHP). Cogeneration/CHP is the simultaneous production of electricity and useful heat from the same fuel or energy. Facilities with cogeneration systems use them to produce their own electricity, and use the unused excess (waste) heat for process steam, hot water heating, space heating, and other thermal needs. They may also use excess process heat to produce steam for electricity production. Cogeneration currently coexists with a regulated industry that is going through major structural changes that may limit or expand its application.

Regulatory Issues

The concept of cogeneration is not new. Early in this century, before there was an extensive network of power lines, many industries had cogeneration plants. As utilities became established and grew, most states began to regulate them in order to limit their pricing power.

The Public Utilities Holding Act of 1935 (PUHCA), together with amendments to the Federal Power Act (also in 1935), were the final steps in protecting utility companies from competition. These laws created vertically integrated utilities with responsibility for the production, transmission, and distribution of power. In exchange for their exclusive franchises (territories) and guaranteed revenues, utilities agreed to government regulation of rates and service. Under these rules, more investments in infrastructure and more sales meant more profits. As the network of power lines grew and electricity from utilities became more economical, industrial facilities bought more of their electricity from utilities. However, many industries still had to generate process heat on-site. The economies of scale that the utilities were able to obtain at that time, as well as the availability of low-priced process heat from cheap oil and gas, removed incentives to retain cogeneration equipment.

In the past three decades, however, the long-term trend of energy prices generally moved upward. Building more and more large power plants no longer provided economies of scale. This was a major factor in the increasing use of cogeneration by commercial and industrial facilities.

The Public Utilities Regulatory Policies Act of 1978 (PURPA) provided further encouragement for developers of cogeneration plants. Section 210 requires utilities to purchase excess electricity generated by "qualifying facilities" (QFs) and to provide backup power at a reasonable cost. QFs included plants that used renewable resources and/or cogeneration technologies to produce electricity. PURPA cogenerators must use at least 5% of their thermal output for process or space heating (10% for facilities that burn oil or natural gas). In many cases, this forced independent cogenerators to accept very low rates for their steam production in order to become a qualifying facility under PURPA. Another problem is the rate at which utilities purchase a cogenerator’s excess power production.

Most states set the price at "avoided cost," or the cost to the utility of producing that extra power. Utilities with excess power generation capacity are often allowed to have extremely low avoided costs. This practice has created artificial barriers to cogeneration as well as to independent power generators.

The Energy Policy Act of 1992 (EPAct) tried to create a more competitive marketplace for electricity generation. It created a new class of power generators known as Exempt Wholesale Generators (EWGs). These are exempt from PUHCA regulation and can sell power competitively to wholesale customers. A cogeneration facility can be (but does not have to be) a QF under PURPA and an EWG under EPAct. This happens when the facility is in the exclusive business of wholesale power sales, and makes no retail power sales to its "steam host" (customer).

Cogeneration Technologies

A typical cogeneration system consists of an engine, steam turbine, or combustion turbine that drives an electrical generator. A waste heat exchanger recovers waste heat from the engine and/or exhaust gas to produce hot water or steam. Cogeneration produces a given amount of electric power and process heat with 10% to 30% less fuel than it takes to produce the electricity and process heat separately.

There are two main types of cogeneration techniques: "Topping Cycle" plants, and "Bottoming Cycle" plants.

A topping cycle plant generates electricity or mechanical power first. Facilities that generate electrical power may produce the electricity for their own use, and then sell any excess power to a utility. There are four types of topping cycle cogeneration systems. The first type burns fuel in a gas turbine or diesel engine to produce electrical or mechanical power. The exhaust provides process heat, or goes to a heat recovery boiler to create steam to drive a secondary steam turbine. This is a combined-cycle topping system. The second type of system burns fuel (any type) to produce high-pressure steam that then passes through a steam turbine to produce power. The exhaust provides low-pressure process steam. This is a steam-turbine topping system. A third type burns a fuel such as natural gas, diesel, wood, gasified coal, or landfill gas. The hot water from the engine jacket cooling system flows to a heat recovery boiler, where it is converted to process steam and hot water for space heating. The fourth type is a gas-turbine topping system. A natural gas turbine drives a generator. The exhaust gas goes to a heat recovery boiler that makes process steam and process heat. A topping cycle cogeneration plant always uses some additional fuel, beyond what is needed for manufacturing, so there is an operating cost associated with the power production.

Bottoming cycle plants are much less common than topping cycle plants. These plants exist in heavy industries such as glass or metals manufacturing where very high temperature furnaces are used. A waste heat recovery boiler recaptures waste heat from a manufacturing heating process. This waste heat is then used to produce steam that drives a steam turbine to produce electricity. Since fuel is burned first in the production process, no extra fuel is required to produce electricity.

An emerging technology that has cogeneration possibilities is the fuel cell. A fuel cell is a device that converts hydrogen to electricity without combustion. Heat is also produced. Most fuel cells use natural gas (composed mainly of methane) as the source of hydrogen. The first commercial availability of fuel cell technology was the phosphoric acid fuel cell, which has been on the market for a few years. There are about 50 installed and operating in the United States. Other fuel cell technologies (molten carbonate and solid oxide) are in early stages of development. Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) may be potential source for cogeneration, due to the high temperature heat generated by their operation.

Cogeneration Applications

Cogeneration systems have been designed and built for many different applications. Large-scale systems can be built on-site at a plant, or off-site. Off-site plants need to be close enough to a steam customer (or municipal steam loop) to cover the cost of a steam pipeline. Industrial or commercial facility owners can operate the plants, or a utility or a non-utility generator (NUG) may own and operate them. Manufacturers use 90% of all cogeneration systems. Some industries and waste incinerator operators who own their own equipment realize sizable profits with cogeneration.

Another large-scale application of cogeneration is for district heating and cooling. Many colleges, hospitals, office buildings and even cities, that have extensive district heating and cooling systems, have at their core, a cogeneration or trigeneration power plant. The University of Florida has a 42 Megawatt (MW) gas turbine cogeneration plant, built in partnership with the Florida Power Corporation. Some large cogeneration facilities were built primarily to produce power. They produce only enough steam to meet the requirements for qualified facilities under PURPA. If no steam host is nearby, one can be built. For example, there are large (80 MW) plants operating under PURPA that have large greenhouses as "steam hosts." The greenhouses operate without losing money only because their steam heat is virtually free of charge. These types of plants are candidates to become EWGs in the new regulatory environment.

Many utilities have formed subsidiaries to own and operate cogeneration plants. These subsidiaries are successful due to the operation and maintenance experience that the utilities bring to them. They also usually have a long-term sales contract lined up before the plant is built. One example is a 300 MW plant that is owned and operated by a subsidiary co-owned by a utility and an oil company. The utility feeds the power directly into its grid. The oil company uses the steam to increase production from its nearby oil wells.

Cogeneration systems are also available to small-scale users of electricity. Small-scale packaged or "modular" systems are being manufactured for commercial and light industrial applications. Modular cogeneration systems are compact, and can be manufactured economically. These systems, ranging in size from 20 kilowatts (kW) to 650 kW produce electricity and hot water from engine waste heat. It is usually best to size the systems to meet the hot water needs of a building. Thus, the best applications are for buildings such as hospitals or restaurants that have a year-round need for hot water or steam. They can be operated continuously or only during peak load hours to reduce peak demand charges, although continuous operation usually has the quickest payback period.

Several companies also attempted to develop systems that burn natural gas and fuel oil for private residences. These home-sized cogeneration packages had a capacity of up to 10 kW, and were capable of providing most of the heating and electrical needs for a home. As of May 2000, none of the companies that developed these systems are selling these units. Several fuel call manufacturers are targeting residential and small commercial applications.

Environmental Issues

While cogeneration provides several environmental benefits by making use of waste heat and waste products, air pollution is a concern any time fossil fuels or biomass are burned. The major regulated pollutants include particulates, sulfur dioxide (SO2), and nitrous oxides (NOx). Water quality, while a lesser concern, can also be a problem. New cogeneration plants are subject to an Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) permit process designed to meet National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS). Many states have stricter regulations than the EPA. This can add significantly to the initial cost of some cogeneration facilities located in urban areas.

Some cogeneration systems, such as diesel engines, do not capture as much waste heat as other systems. Others may not be able to use all the thermal energy that they produce because of their location. They are therefore less efficient, and the corresponding environmental benefits are less than they could be. The environmental impacts of air and water pollution and waste disposal are very site-specific for cogeneration. This is a problem for some cogeneration plants because the special equipment (water treatment, air scrubbers, etc.) required to meet environmental regulations adds to the cost of the project. If, on the other hand, pollution control equipment is required for the primary industrial or commercial process anyway, cogeneration can be economically attractive.

Even the environmental groups are on the cogeneration bandwagon. Since its' founding, the Sierra Club has supported total energy (cogeneration). See the Sierra Club's statement on energy policy.

Future Market Development

Several factors will affect the growth of cogeneration activities. They include the initial cost of buying and bringing a cogeneration system on-line, maintenance costs, and environmental control requirements. Some electric utilities do not need additional electricity. They may have excess generation capacity or a stable customer base. This leads to lower "avoided cost" rates, which reduces the viability of cogeneration projects that rely heavily on power sales to utilities.

The restructuring of the electric power generation and distribution industry that is currently underway in many states, makes it more attractive for developers to become independent power producers and to build "electricity only" power plants, instead of cogeneration plants. There has also been a great deal of pressure from utility and industrial special interests to repeal or amend PURPA. If they are successful, it could be difficult for new cogeneration projects to get off the ground. Barring that development, improved technology and cooperation among industries, businesses, utilities, and financiers should provide impetus to the continued development of both cogeneration projects and independent power production projects.

One significant impetus for cogeneration is the issue of global climate change from global warming caused by the greenhouse effect, of which fossil fuel combustion is a major contributor.
Cogeneration is the environmentally-friendly, economically-sensible way to produce power, simultaneously saving significant amounts of money and also dramatically reducing total greenhouse gas emissions.

Cogeneration Technologies

Cogeneration technologies are conventional power generation systems with the means to make use of the energy remaining in exhaust gases, cooling systems, or other energy waste stream. Typical cogeneration prime movers include:

                                                           Combustion turbines
                                                           Reciprocating engines
                                                           Boilers with steam turbines
                                                           Microturbines
                                                           Fuel cells

Cogeneration Benefits

Cogeneration offers energy, environmental, and economic benefits, including:

Saving money

By improving efficiency, cogeneration systems can reduce fuel costs associated with providing heat and electricity to a facility.

Improving power reliability

Cogeneration systems are located at the point of energy use. They provide high-quality and reliable power and heat locally to the energy user, and they also help reduce congestion on the electric grid by removing or reducing load. In this way, cogeneration systems effectively assist or support the electric grid, providing enhanced reliability in electricity transmission and distribution.

Reducing environmental impact

Because of its improved efficiency in fuel conversion, cogeneration reduces the amount of fuel burned for a given energy output and reduces the corresponding emissions of pollutants and greenhouse gases.

Conserving limited resources of fossil fuels

Because cogeneration requires less fuel for a given energy output, the use of cogeneration reduces the demand on our limited natural resources—including coal, natural gas, and oil—and improves our nation's energy security.

Where Can cogeneration Be Used?

Cogeneration installations are most likely to be economically viable at locations where the following characteristics exist:

* Coincident demand for electricity and thermal energy (i.e., steam, heating, or cooling) during most of the year.

* Access to fuels, including natural gas, biomass, and/or by-product fuels.

The following are typical markets for cogeneration:

Energy-intensive industries, including the chemical, refining, forest products, food, and pharmaceutical sectors.

District energy systems that distribute heat or chilled water to a network of buildings. Such systems show the greatest promise in downtown areas, industrial parks, college campuses, military bases, and other large institutional facilities.

High power reliability/quality applications, such as Internet or telecommunications data centers requiring high-quality, reliable power and substantial cooling capacity.

Institutional markets, including hospitals, hotels, and convention centers where large year-round demands exist for electricity, heating, and cooling.

Abandoned industrial sites, or brownfields, where cogeneration-based systems can provide the energy infrastructure for "power parks," facilitating economic redevelopment of underutilized properties.

Commercial buildings—as building-scale cogeneration technologies become better integrated and increasingly cost-effective, this market offers large potential for new applications.

A small sample of successful businesses now using cogeneration include:

Agriculture, apartment buildings, auto/car dealerships, casinos, cold storage facilities, communications sites, convenience stores, credit card processing facilities, customer service centers, dairies, fabrication plants, feed yards, foundries, golf courses, government buildings, commercial greenhouses and nurseries, grocery stores, hospitals, hotels, ice skating rinks, industrial parks, ISP's, landfills, laundries/laundromats, malls, manufacturing plants, military bases and installations, motels, nursing homes, oil & gas leases, office buildings, paper & pulp, parking garages, printing companies, processing plants, radio stations, resorts, restaurants, retail stores, retirement homes, schools, server farms, shopping centers, sports complexes, steel manufacturing, supermarkets, television stations, universities, warehouses, waste treatment facilities, wineries

The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Supports Cogeneration.....

Because the average efficiency of the fossil-fueled power plants in the U.S. is around 30-33% and has remained virtually unchanged since the 1930's. This means that two-thirds of the energy in the fuel is lost as heat. Cogeneration systems recycle this waste heat and convert it to useful energy and achieve effective electrical efficiencies of 50% to 70%. This improvement reduces emissions of sulfur dioxide, nitrous oxide, mercury, particulate matter, and carbon dioxide, the leading greenhouse gas associated with climate change. In addition to reducing air pollution, cogeneration conserves our limited fossil fuel resources, thereby increasing our nation's energy self-sufficiency.

Trigeneration - with system efficiencies up to 50% greater than "cogeneration," is the simultaneous production of power/electricity, hot water and/or steam, and chilled water from one fuel. Basically, a trigeneration power plant is a cogeneration power plant that has added absorption chillers for producing chilled water from the heat that would have been wasted from a cogeneration power plant. Trigeneration plants can reach system efficiencies that exceed 90%. In addition to the economic benefits and advantages, trigeneration plants reduce our dependence on foreign energy supplies and help our environment by dramatically reducing greenhouse gas emissions such as carbon dioxide - when compared to typical power plants.

Trigeneration has been hailed the "hat-trick of the energy industry" with system efficiencies approaching and exceeding 90%.

Trigeneration plants are very energy efficient, conserve natural resources and reduce fuel consumption as the system operates at such high efficiencies.

The Advantages Of Cogeneration And Trigeneration

Owners of commercial buildings and commercial businesses are increasingly seeking ways to use energy more efficiently. This is a direct result of dramatically increasing electric rates, decreased power reliability (blackouts, brownouts, rolling blackouts, and other power interruptions), as well as competitive and economic pressures to cut expenses, increase air quality, and reduce emissions of air pollutants and greenhouse gases. The Kyoto Protocol, while not ratified in the United States, continues to be a major driver in much of the rest of the world. In the United States, "ecogeneration" is becoming a preferred method to produce a company’s or facility’s power and energy requirements.

Ecogeneration defines the optimization of economic and ecological benefits in the power generation process. Ecogeneration produces huge savings for our environment through the reduction, or even elimination, of pollution associated with power and energy production. Additionally, ecogeneration appeals to our customers’ economic bottom line by providing them with significant fuel and electrical savings.

There are two major ecogeneration initiatives and technologies that we will discuss in this article — cogeneration and the newer technology, trigeneration. Trigeneration is one of the most attractive options, and is even more efficient and economically rewarding than its cousin, cogeneration.

Cogeneration, also known as combined heat and power (CHP), is the simultaneous production of electricity and useful heat, usually in the form of either hot water or steam, from one primary fuel, such as natural gas. While not necessarily defined correctly, cogeneration has also been referred to as district energy, total energy, combined cycle, and simply cogen.

Cogeneration has been mostly a technology used in the utilities and industrial marketplace.

Trigeneration, as the name implies, refers to three energies, and is defined as the simultaneous production of heat and power, just like cogeneration, except trigeneration takes cogeneration one step further by also producing chilled water for air conditioning or process use with the addition of absorption or adsorption chillers. Trigeneration, also referred to as CHCP (combined heating, cooling and power), BCHP (building cooling, heating and power) and integrated energy systems, permits even greater operational flexibility at businesses with demand for energy in the form of heating and cooling. Just as a cogeneration power plant captures and makes use of the waste heat - the absorption chillers or adsorption chillers capture the waste (or rejected) heat and produce chilled water for air-conditioning or other processing or industrial applications.

Trigeneration systems are found in commercial applications typically where there is a need for air conditioning or chilled water by the customer.

When a trigeneration power system is installed on-site, that is, where the electrical and thermal energy is needed by the customer so that the electrical energy does not have to be transported hundreds of miles away, and the thermal energy is fully utilized, system efficiencies can reach and surpass 90 percent.

On-site trigeneration plants are much more efficient, economically sound, and environmentally friendly than typical central power plants. Because of this, customers’ energy expenses are significantly lower, and the associated pollution is also much less than if the customer had an energy system supplied with electricity from the grid, along with water heaters and boiler systems on-site. Trigeneration's superior efficiencies surpass even the latest state-of-the-art combined cycle cogeneration power plants by up to 50 percent. Coupled with a four-pipe system, hot water/steam and chilled water can be produced simultaneously for circulation throughout the building or campus (which would be referred to as a district energy system).

And size is not an impediment, since trigeneration systems can be installed, for example, in small commercial settings, such as restaurants, hotels, schools, office buildings, and shopping centers, to large applications such as petrochemical plants, refineries, and in a city's downtown area, providing the energy requirements for multiple buildings. And it will still provide system efficiencies of 90 percent.

History Of Cogeneration Technology

Many people know that Thomas Edison built the first commercial power plant. However, most people do not know that Edison's first commercial power plant known as the "Pearl Street Station," built in 1882 in Lower Manhattan, New York, was also a cogeneration power plant!

Because cogeneration and trigeneration continue to be the most efficient method of generating electrical and thermal energy, in terms of energy output, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) has called for the doubling of electrical power generated from cogeneration power plants — from the existing 46 GW (one gigawatt = 1,000 MW) to 92 GW by the year 2010. When this goal is reached, cogeneration will represent about 14 percent of the total U.S. generating capacity of electricity. The American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy (ACEEE) estimates that an additional 95 GW of cogeneration capacity could be added between 2010-2020, resulting in 29 percent of total U.S. electric power generation being produced through cogeneration. Europe is also dramatically increasing the number of cogeneration power plants over the next decade.

And the historical basis and success of cogeneration has been the foundational basis for expanding the efficiencies of cogeneration to trigeneration and even quadgeneration, with each new increase in energies recovered resulting in higher efficiencies and lower fuel/energy costs and fewer related emissions.

President Bush's National Energy Plan

In the United States, President George W. Bush's National Energy Plan recognizes the efficiency of cogeneration technologies — and it plays an important role in meeting national energy objectives and maintaining comfort and safety in commercial and office buildings. Released in May 2001, the president's National Energy Plan states:

A family of technologies known as combined heat and power (CHP) can achieve efficiencies of 80 percent or more. In addition to environmental benefits, cogeneration projects offer efficiency and cost savings in a variety of settings, including industrial boilers, energy systems, and small building scale applications. At industrial facilities alone, there is potential for an additional 124,000 MW of efficient power from gas-fired cogeneration, which could result in annual emissions reductions of 614,000 tons of NOx emissions and 44 million tons of carbon equivalent. Cogeneration is also one of a group of clean, highly reliable, distributed energy technologies that reduce the amount of electricity lost in transmission while eliminating the need to construct expensive power lines to transmit power from large central power plants.

Since the 1930s approximately two-thirds of all the fuel used to make electricity in the U.S. is generally wasted by central power plants in the form of unused thermal energy in the electrical generation process. While there have been impressive energy efficiency gains in other sectors of the economy since the oil price shocks of the 1970s, the average efficiency of power generation in this country has remained around 27 to 35 percent for nearly 70 years. The use of cogeneration and trigeneration can significantly improve that efficiency.

Pollution Associated With Inefficient Power Plants

Currently, power plants in the U.S. have been cited for producing two-thirds of its annual sulphur dioxide emissions, one-quarter of the nitrogen oxide emissions, one-third of mercury emissions, and one-third of carbon dioxide emissions. These resulting pollutants produce serious environmental and health consequences, including:

· Lung problems in the young and old, including increased rates of asthma and chronic bronchitis.

"Curing" the problems associated with inefficient electrical power generation begins with pollution prevention. The choices are clear — we must stop wasting energy and start increasing the efficiency of power generation facilities. Instead of building inefficient, wasteful, pollution-generating central power plants owned by utility companies, where the thermal energy is wasted, we need to start building efficient, on-site power plants where the heat energy can be utilized. These on-site cogeneration, trigeneration, and quadgeneration power and energy systems are also referred to as "distributed generation" or "distributed energy" technologies. They can be installed easily and affordably, and they operate economically throughout their life cycle.

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) understands that resolving these problems must start with pollution prevention, which equates to using fewer energy resources to produce goods and services. The National Energy Plan includes four specific recommendations to promote CHP, three of which were directed to EPA for action:

· Issuing of guidelines to encourage development of highly efficient and low-emissions CHP.

· Promotion of the use of CHP at abandoned brownfield industrial and commercial sites.

As a follow-up to those recommendations, EPA joined with 18 Fortune 500 companies, city and state governments, and nonprofit organizations in February 2002 in Washington, DC, to announce the EPA Combined Heat and Power Partnership (CHPP). The CHPP aims to advance CHP as a more efficient, clean, and reliable alternative to conventional electricity generation. This initiative now boasts nearly 50 partners, including state and local regulators, end users, project developers, and equipment suppliers.

Clean On-Site Power For Commercial And Industrial Customers

Distributed generation locates smaller and more efficient power plants where the power and thermal energy is actually needed. These on-site power systems are also called "inside the fence" power systems and are designed and engineered to maximize the customer's power and energy requirements.

The DOE’s Energy Information Administration (EIA) recently sponsored a study to estimate the potential of cogeneration installations in the U.S. According to their study, there are 1,431,805 buildings in the United States that are suitable for on-site cogeneration power systems (most of these are actually better suited for trigeneration) requiring a capacity of 77,281 MW. At an average of $1 million per MW, this translates into a $77,281,000,000 market opportunity. That's over $77 billion in the U.S. alone. Trigeneration would be an even greater market opportunity as this study focused on applications where thermal energy load was in the form of steam or hot water, and does not take into consideration use of thermal technologies, such as absorption chillers or adsorption chillers or desiccant dehumidification, as part of the potential for the building's thermal load.

When absorption chillers or adsorption chillers are added to a cogeneration system, it is now referred to as a trigeneration system. Therefore, the total market potential in the study could be significantly higher than the 77,281 MW when considering the opportunity for trigeneration applications. The study also estimates the total existing capacity of cogeneration installations in the U.S. to be only about 4,930 MW, and that over 70 percent of the existing facilities are under 1 MW and are powered by small reciprocating engines.

Even quadgeneration is a possibility, taking trigeneration one further step, producing four energies from one process. By extracting most, if not all, of the available heat from the power/energy generation process, end users obtain the most efficient, optimized energy system. But the efficiency gains are wasted if the recovered waste heat is not put to work or the existing boilers or water heaters displaced, reduced, or eliminate entirely. This is why it is absolutely critical that a thorough and complete feasibility study is done to determine a properly sized on-site energy system, and that conventional systems are either eliminated, compensated for, or integrated into the new energy system.

It should go without saying, but if the facility that installs a trigeneration system does not replace or reduce other systems, there can be a net loss of efficiency. If the facility does not offset the net efficiency gains of the new trigeneration system by reducing, displacing, or eliminating the existing water heaters/boilers load, then the facility will not have an optimized installation and therefore will not profit to the extent it could have had the feasibility and design studies been properly conducted.

While cooling can be provided by electric-driven compression chillers, low quality heat (i.e., low temperature, low pressure) that is not used by the cogeneration power plant can be used to drive the absorption chillers or adsorption chillers so that the overall primary energy consumption is reduced.

Trigeneration power plants with absorption chillers or adsorption chillers have gained acceptance due to their capability of not only integrating with cogeneration systems but also because they can operate with industrial waste heat streams that can be fairly substantial. The benefit of power generation with absorption chillers or adsorption chillers providing the cooling - which can be realized through the following example that compares it with a power generation system with conventional electric-driven compression systems.

Assume in this example a factory needs 1 MW of electricity and 500 refrigeration tons (RT). (Defintion: A refrigeration ton or RT is defined as the transfer of heat at the rate of 3.52 kW, which is roughly the rate of cooling obtained by melting ice at the rate of one ton per day.)

Let us first consider the gas turbine that generates electricity required for the processes as well as the conventional electric-driven compression chiller. With an electricity demand of 0.65 kW/RT, the compression chiller needs 325 kW of electricity to obtain 500 RT of cooling. Therefore, a total of 1,325 kW of electricity must be provided to this factory. If the gas turbine has an efficiency of 30 percent, primary energy consumption would be 4,417 kW.

In this example, the trigeneration power plant saves about 24.54 percent of the primary energy needed compared to the cogeneration power plant with electric-driven compression chillers. Since many industries and commercial buildings can use combined power and heating/cooling, trigeneration systems have a high potential for industrial and commercial applications. (The above example is courtesy of ASHRAE.)

Trigeneration, when compared to combined-cycle cogeneration, can be up to 50 percent more efficient, further reducing operating costs, fuel expenses, and environmental pollutants.

Trigeneration systems for commercial buildings are very profitable investments for building owners. A new trigeneration system can pay for itself in as little as two years, depending on local electric rates, natural gas (or other fuel) costs, and the load profile of the building. Trigeneration systems help not only the building owner, but also benefit society in a number of ways, including:

The on-site trigeneration system can be economically attractive for many types of buildings, including, but not limited to, the following:

Facilities with trigeneration systems use them to produce their own electricity, and use the unused excess (waste) heat for water heating, space heating, air conditioning, process steam, and other thermal needs.

Improved Power Reliability

Economic losses due to power outages in the U.S. have cost American businesses billions of dollars. The following table shows the economic impact of power outages on some industries.

As we all know, power outages and rolling blackouts are occurring more frequently than ever before. And they are not happening only in California; many other states have experienced similar problems. These problems primarily occur when demand for power exceeds its supply, for example, on hot days when power demand for cooling systems increases significantly. Similar situations occur on very cold days when demand for heating becomes very high. There may also be local areas that are more prone to power outages because the demand for power exceeds the ability of the local distribution line to provide the energy. Other times, weather-related storms knock down power lines and substation transformers.

Cogeneration and trigeneration systems give commercial and industrial end users their own reliable power supply to keep equipment and facilities operating. Plus, they help reduce the load on the power grid and local area lines and, thus, help improve the local community’s power reliability.

Improved Indoor Environments

Also of increasing interest is the issue of indoor air quality. In order to prevent the growth of mold, mildew, and bacteria, it is important to keep humidity in the indoor air to below 60 percent. Cogeneration and trigeneration systems for buildings can help improve indoor air quality by supporting the use of a desiccant dehumidification system to dry the air. Desiccant systems use a material that directly removes moisture from the air, then use heat, such as that provided by the exhaust gases of the cogeneration/trigeneration equipment, to regenerate the desiccant. This provides a very energy efficient and cost effective method of dehumidifying indoor air, rather that using an air conditioner to "over cool" the air to remove humidity.

· Cogeneration and trigeneration are accepted as the most energy-efficient means of producing electricity.

· They now produce almost 10 percent of our nation's electricity and 10 percent of electricity globally.

· They provide even greater savings to our environment through significantly reduced emissions associated with power plants.

· They are backed by environmental organizations such as the Sierra Club and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

· The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is promoting the use of more electricity to be produced through cogeneration power plants. The EPA recently formed the CHP/Cogeneration Partnership to foster more cogeneration power plants to meet our nation's electricity demand.

· Cogeneration is a proven technology that has been around for over 100 years. The world's first power plant designed and built by Thomas Edison in 1882 was a cogeneration plant. Trigeneration just takes cogeneration one step further.

· Two-thirds of the fuel used to make electricity today in the United States is wasted. While there have been impressive energy efficiency gains in other sectors of the economy since the oil price shocks of the 1970s, the average efficiency of power generation in the United States has stagnated at around 33 percent since 1960. Cogeneration and trigeneration offer significant efficiency improvements.

· A new trigeneration power plant may pay for itself in as little as 2-3 years.

· It is important to note that increasing the use of cogeneration and trigeneration systems is, and has been, one of the best technologies available for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and other pollutants created by the typical power plant as well as a means for conserving fuel and reducing our reliance on foreign oil.

· The Kyoto Protocol, while not being ratified here in the United States, is moving ahead with ratification throughout the rest of the world. Countries throughout much of Europe and Asia view cogeneration and trigeneration as the best energy technologies to meet the stringent emissions requirements of the Kyoto Protocol.

· Primary fuels commonly used in trigeneration include natural gas, oil, diesel fuel, propane, coal, wood, wood-waste, and bio-mass. These "primary" fuels are used to make electricity that is a "secondary" energy. This is why electricity, when compared on a Btu to Btu basis, is typically three to four times more expensive than primary fuels such natural gas.

A typical cogeneration power plant consists of an engine, steam turbine, or combustion turbine that drives an electrical generator. A waste heat exchanger recovers waste heat from the engine and/or exhaust gas to produce hot water or steam for a building. In trigeneration power plants, an absorption or adsorption chiller is added to a cogeneration system to also utilize the waste heat to make chilled water for air conditioning.

Cogeneration produces a given amount of electric power and heat with 20 to 30 percent less fuel than it takes to produce the electricity and heat separately. Trigeneration produces chilled water in addition to electric power and heat with approximately 50 percent less fuel than it takes to produce electricity, heat, and chilled water separately.

What is a Power Purchase Agreement?

A Power Purchase Agreement is a legal agreement wherein our clients agree to buy either the power (electricity) or the power and energy (hot water, steam and/or chilled water for air-conditioning) - or both - directly from us, for a term of 10 to 20 years, where we have installed, own and operate our solar energy systems.

In nearly every case, once we have installed our solar energy systems at our client's facility, we can immediately reduce our (commercial) client's electricity expenses by 10% over what they were paying for their power electricity from their electric utility.

The right Power Purchase Agreement, solar cogeneration or solar trigeneration energy solution, may save your company hundreds of thousands, and possibly millions of dollars over the term of the agreement.

Simultaneously, having the wrong or poorly drafted PPA can cost your company thousands or millions of dollars. You wouldn't consult a brain surgeon to treat your child's broken bone! Selecting the wrong attorneys, law firm or team to promulgate or re-negotiate your Power Purchase Agreement can leave you "powerless" and penniless - and still requiring the skills and expertise of competent and qualified professionals to resolve the situation.

Because a Power Purchase Agreement is at the "heart" and underlying foundation of our projects, we can help your business with the selection and oversight of PPA's.

We can help your city or community create a Municipal Utility District or Public Utility District that may then qualify for our very competitively priced energy and electricity rates. Now is the time for cities, municipal and governmental clients to consider having our company install one of our renewable power and energy systems that will generate "clean" power and energy, lower costs, and avoid the coming electricity shortages and grid congestion problems!

Products and services provided by us include the following power and energy project development services:

The Best Site Available for Combined Heat and Power, Information, Resources
and Turnkey Cogeneration & Trigeneration Project Development

Advertise Your Company, Product, or Solar Services
at the BEST website address for Combined Heat and Power!

www.CombinedHeatAndPower.net

What Is a Solar Power Purchase Agreement (SPPA)?

A Solar Power Purchase Agreement (SPPA) is a financial arrangement in which a third-party developer owns, operates, and maintains the photovoltaic (PV) system, and a host customer agrees to site the system on its roof or elsewhere on its property and purchases the system’s electric output from the solar services provider for a predetermined period. This financial arrangement allows the host customer to receive stable, and sometimes lower cost electricity, while the solar services provider or another party acquires valuable financial benefits such as tax credits and income generated from the sale of electricity to the host customer.

With this business model, the host customer buys the services produced by the PV system rather than the PV system itself. This framework is referred to as the “solar services” model, and the developers who offer Solar Power Purchase Agreements are known as solar services providers. Solar Power Purchase Agreement arrangements enable the host customer to avoid many of the traditional barriers to adoption for organizations looking to install solar systems: high up-front capital costs; system performance risk; and complex design and permitting processes. In addition, Solar Power Purchase Agreement arrangements can be cash flow positive for the host customer from the day the system is commissioned.

How do Solar Power Purchase Agreements Work?

A host customer agrees to have solar panels installed on its property, typically its roof, and signs a long-term contract with the solar services provider to purchase the generated power. The host property can be either owned or leased (note that for leased properties, solar financing works best for customers that have a long-term lease). The purchase price of the generated electricity is typically at or slightly below the retail electric rate the host customer would pay its utility service provider.

Solar Power Purchase Agreement rates can be fixed, but they often contain an annual price escalator in the range of one to five percent to account for system efficiency decreases as the system ages and inflation-related costs increases for system operation, monitoring, maintenance, and anticipated increases in the price of grid-delivered electricity. A Solar Power Purchase Agreement is a performance-based arrangement in which the host customer pays only for what the system produces. The term length of most Solar Power Purchase Agreements can range from six years (i.e., the time by which available tax benefits are fully realized) to as long as 25 years.

The solar services provider functions as the project coordinator, arranging the financing, design, permitting, and construction of the system. The solar services provider purchases the solar panels for the project from a PV manufacturer, who provides warranties for system equipment.

The installer will design the system, specify the appropriate system components, and may perform the follow-up maintenance over the life of the PV system. To install the system, the solar services provider might use an in-house team of installers or have a contractual relationship with an independent installer. Once the Solar Power Purchase Agreement contract is signed, a typical installation can usually be completed in three to six months.

An investor provides equity financing and receives the federal and state tax benefits for which the system is eligible. Under certain circumstances, the investor and the solar services provider may together form a special purpose entity for the project to function as the legal entity that receives and distributes to the investor payments from the sale of the systems kWh output and tax benefits.

The utility serving the host customer provides an interconnection from the PV system to the grid, and continues its electric service with the host customer to cover the periods during which the system is producing less than the site’s electric demand. Certain states have net metering requirements in place that provide a method of crediting customers who produce electricity on-site for generation in excess of their own electricity consumption. In most states, the utility will credit excess electricity produced from the PV system, although the compensation varies significantly depending on state polices.

Some of the above information from the Department of Energy and Environmental Protection Agency with permission.

A Power Purchase Agreement is "behind" almost every power plant. A PPA is a contract involving the generation and sales of electricity - which is normally developed between the owner of a power plant generating the electricity, and the buyer of the electricity. PPA's can be quite lengthy agreements that may exceed 100 pages in length and take several months to even 1-2 years to finalize.

The basic information contained in a Power Purchase Agreement include the following items:

          * Definitions
          * Purchase and Sale of Contracted Capacity and Energy (such as steam, hot
             water and/or chilled water in the case of cogeneration and trigeneration
             plants
          * Operation of the Power Plant
          * Financing of the Power Plant
          * Guarantees of Performance
          * Penalties
          * Payments
          * Force Majeure
          * Default and Early Termination
          * Miscellaneous
          * T&C's

For more information about Power Purchase Agreements, call or e-mail us today.
Tel. (832) 758 - 0027.

We develop renewable energy projects, and specialize in solar power and energy project development. Our company provides the total, turnkey solar energy system "in-house." This means our capabilities and core competencies include solar project:

Our company provides the total, turnkey solar energy system design/engineering through installation, "in-house." This means we provide the following;

We have successfully completed "turnkey" installations of our solar energy systems for clients that include residential, commercial, industrial, and government. Our present clients and projects include a large pipeline of solar energy systems projects that are now in design &/or under development or construction. Our present projects range in size from:

We recently completed a 160 kW solar energy system for a major hotel wherein we self-funded their new "Rooftop PV System" with our Power Purchase Agreement.

Our solar power and energy project development services and capabilities include multiple solar technologies, including;

"Carbon free energy" is energy that is produced or generated without producing any carbon dioxide emissions.

Even nuclear power plants generate "carbon free energy." These are just some examples of carbon-free renewable energy. The purpose of all these methods is to combat the increase in greenhouse gas emissions and reduce our impact on the environment as a whole.

We install our Solar Trigeneration^sm Energy Systems, for qualified commercial businesses, as well as cities, schools and government facilities with our Zero Up-front Cost program.

For some customers - based on their present location, utility company and electric rate - we are able to reduce their electric rate by 10%. Even more for other customers. Solar Trigeneration^sm Energy System!

Does your; business, city, school, or electric utility want a more sustainable solar power and energy solution?

Are you interested in transforming your facility, campus or building(s) to "Net Zero Energy"™ buildings?

Does your city or school have a problem with rising electricity and energy expenses, but not have the financial resources to provide the necessary updates and upgrades to make your buildings more efficient?

Maybe you have already decided to go solar, but you have a lot of questions, and don't know where to start. Call us, we have the answers to your solar questions.

What is the optimum solar solution? There are hundreds of companies in the solar power and energy industry..... Who do you call to help you with these questions to help you make the right decisions?

There's still more questions, that you may not have thought about..... which solar technology do you go with, and what is the return on investment?

Are there any solar rebates, refunds, tax credits or other incentives available?

You have numerous questions and need the answers to help in the decision-making process regarding the solar power and energy system you want to install. These decisions will have a long-lasting impact as the solar energy system that you install at your business or facility will probably be generating clean power for the next 40 to 50 years, if not longer! So, the decisions that you need to make now regarding your solar energy system will be a decision that will be either a long-term asset or a liability, depending on the equipment you select and who you choose to install it.

We can help cities, schools and commercial (and large residential) customers make the switch to solar!

And now, with our no up-front cost for our Solar Trigeneration^sm Energy System, we can also transform your building(s) to a "Net Zero Energy Building"™ and many times, actually REDUCE your present energy expenses by 10%, and possibly more!

Examples of buildings/facilities where our Solar Trigeneration^sm Energy Systems would benefit, include; universities, churches, data centers, shopping centers, schools, radio/television stations, food processing, warehouses, new real estate developments and subdivisions, and electric utilities - practically any commercial facility can be upgraded to one of our "pollution free power" systems featuring one of our solar energy systems, including our Solar Trigeneration^sm system!

Call or email us, we can provide these answers. We are focused on providing the optimum solar energy systems for our clients. This begins with an initial review of your past 12 months energy/electrical bills. The next step would include a site visit which may include a Demand Side Management study and/or a Solar Feasibility Study which determines the optimum solar energy system for your facility or location. Once the optimum solar solution(s) are determined, we then have a blueprint to proceed that could include our installing one of our Solar Cogeneration™ or Solar Trigeneration^sm energy systems. Or for a city, real estate development or subdivision, or an electric utility, one of our utility scale power plants which might be a Concentrating Photovoltaic, Concentrating Solar Power or High Concentration Photovoltaic power plants.

Net Zero Energy^sm - when applied to a home or commercial building, simply means that the home or buildings generates as much power and energy as they consume, when measured on a monthly or annual basis, and with an onsite, renewable energy system, such as our Solar Trigeneration^sm Energy System.

A Net Zero Energy Building^sm produces as much energy as it uses over the course of a year. Net Zero Energy Buildings^sm are very energy efficient. The remaining low energy needs are typically met with on-site renewable energy.

First of all, understand that there is no such thing as a "zero energy building!" EVERY building uses energy, or you may as well be in a cave!

4. What are the utility company's prices for the excess power generated and sent to the grid?
(see: Net Energy Metering)

5. How difficult is it to interconnect the renewable energy system of the building with the utility company's powerlines/electric grid?

At the heart of a Net Zero Energy Building^sm is the idea that any building can meet its energy requirements from low-cost, locally available, nonpolluting, renewable sources, like our Solar Trigeneration^sm Energy Systems. Our Solar Trigeneration^sm Energy Systems are the idea whose time has come, to make Net Zero Energy Buildings^sm commonplace.

Solar Trigeneration^sm Energy Systems Provide All of the Cooling, Heating & Power, for Any Size Building, with only the Energy of the Sun. Solar Trigeneration^sm Energy Systems Provide Simultaneous Cooling, Heating & Power whether it is 12 Noon, or 12 Midnight, and can do so, WITHOUT Connection to the electric grid!

The Diagram Below Shows How Our Solar Trigeneration^sm Energy System Works,
for Heating and Cooling a Building (next to the Solar Thermal Collectors, are the PV Panels, that generate the Electricity).

Our Solar Trigeneration^sm Energy System
provides "Cooling, Heating & Power" for your business,
or home with the free energy of the sun!

Net energy metering is used to measure a customer's total electric consumption against that customer's total on-site electric generation. When a customer's onsite generation of power exceeds the amount that they use, the customer's solar energy system (or other renewable energy system) exports the extra electricity to the grid. When the power requirements of the customer exceeds their onsite generation of power, the customer imports the electricity they need from electric grid. The customer pays the electric company for any extra power they use over the amount they generate - OR - the customer receives a credit or refund from the electric company if they exported more power to the grid, than what they consumed.

Renewable Energy Is Necessary for Net Zero Energy Buildings

Much focus is placed on energy efficiency as the most cost-effective way to reduce energy use in commercial buildings. However, consumption can be reduced only so much. There is a point at which the cost of adding efficiency measures is higher than that of using renewable energy such as thin film photovoltaics and other solar energy systems.

Aggressive energy efficiency strategies can reduce a building's energy consumption by 50% to 70%. Renewable energy technologies must be used to reach the goal of a net-zero energy building (NZEB).

Supply-Side Technologies

Various supply-side renewable energy technologies are available for Net Zero Energy Buildings. Supply-side technologies, often called energy producers, collect natural energy and transform it into a useful form. Examples of these technologies include PV, solar hot water, wind, hydroelectric, and biofuels.

Ranking of Energy Options

All renewable sources are favorable over conventional energy sources such as coal and natural gas; however, the U.S. Department of Energy recommends the following ranking for these options (the lower numbers are preferable):

Option Number	NZEB Supply-Side Options	Examples
0	Reduce site energy use through low-energy building technologies	Daylighting, high-efficiency heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning equipment (HVAC), natural ventilation, evaporative cooling
On-Site Supply Options
1	Use renewable energy sources available within the building's footprint	PV, solar hot water, and wind located on the building
2	Use renewable energy sources available at the site	PV, solar hot water, low-impact hydroelectric, and wind located on-site, but not on the building
Off-Site Supply Options
3	Use renewable energy sources available off site to generate energy on site	Biomass, wood pellets, ethanol, or biodiesel that can be imported from off site; waste streams from on-site processes that can be used on-site to generate electricity and heat
4	Purchase off-site renewable energy sources	Utility-based wind, PV, emissions credits, or other "green" purchasing options; hydroelectric is sometimes considered

This hierarchy is weighted toward renewable technologies within the building footprint and site. Rooftop PV and solar water heating are the most applicable supply-side technologies for Net Zero Energy Buildings. Other supply-side technologies such as parking lot-based wind or solar energy systems may be available.

Now, Your Business Can Have Our Solar Trigeneration™
Energy System, installed for No Up-Front Costs!

Through an affiliated partner company, we are now installing our Solar Trigeneration™ Energy Systems, for qualified commercial businesses, nationwide, with Zero up-front costs.

Some customers may even see a decrease in their energy expenses by as much as 10% to 20% with our Zero up-front cost Solar Trigeneration™ Energy System!

To qualify for our no up-front cost Solar Trigeneration Energy Systems, businesses must:

We expect ALL of our customers will be very happy knowing that the clean, green, renewable power they are using is:

We provide Solar Power and Energy systems that we refer to as "EcoGeneration" solutions that produce cooler, cleaner, greener power and energy for our customers and our environment. Unlike most companies, we are equipment supplier/vendor neutral. This means we help our clients select the best equipment for their specific application. This approach provides our customers with superior performance, decreased operating expenses and increased return on investment.

Our company provides turn-key project solutions that include all or part of the following:

The Audubon Nature Center Installs Solar Trigeneration System
Making this one of the World's First "Net Zero Energy Buildings"
at Their New Facility in Los Angeles, California

GRID-FREE SOLAR ENERGY SYSTEM....
NO CONNECTION TO THE ELECTRIC UTILITY!

The Solar Trigeneration Provides All of their Facility's (5000 sq.ft.)
Cooling, Heating and Power Requirements - at 12 noon or 12 midnite,
WITHOUT ANY CONNECTION to the Electric Utility
with our Solar Trigeneration Energy System!

The Audubon Nature Center is totally powered by the sun’s energy and our Solar Trigeneration energy system!

The 5,300 square foot building operates entirely “grid-free” and without any electric connections to the electric grid, or natural gas connections – a truly sustainable power and energy solution.

Best of all, the Audubon Center doesn’t rely on the over-burdened electric grid or even natural gas. Therefore, the Audubon Nature Center NEVER receives an electric bill or natural gas bill.... ever!

The Audubon Nature Center's 5,000 square foot office and conference facility is powered by a Solar Trigeneration system that features a 25-kilowatt solar electric power system where the energy is stored in a bank of batteries. The Center is cooled by a 10-ton solar absorption cooling system powered by an array of very efficient solar heat pipe vacuum tube thermal collectors. The collectors heat the water to temperatures of 200+ degree F stored in a 1,200 gallon insulated tank, another type of inexpensive battery. The Solar Trigeneration system at the Audubon not only provides the air-conditioning in the summer but also heats the building in the winter, and provides the hot water for the kitchen and bathrooms.

Absorption chillers, and cooling with solar energy with an absorption chiller are not new technologies. In fact, absorption chiller technology is over 70 years old. The first refrigerators were powered by propane gas to run the absorption chillers that used ammonia as a refrigerant. Electricity and the electric compression chiller gained popularity only because of the convenient “plug and play” appliance and relatively cheap electric rates. Electricity is no longer economically, or environmentally “cheap.”

Few people realize that the world's first commercial power plant, designed and built by Thomas Edison, was a cogeneration power plant that was first opened on Pearl Street, in Lower Manhattan, New York. That was in 1882! Edison not only generated, and sold electricity in the several blocks surrounding his "Pearl Street Station" but he also sold the hot water that was also generated from the cogeneration plant. The fuel Edison used for generating the electricity and hot water (cogeneration) came from "pulverized coal." The Pearl Street Station provided 110 volts of "direct current" power to 59 customers in lower Manhattan, around his Pearl Street laboratory.

Unlike traditional cogeneration and trigeneration power plants that are fueled by natural gas - and Thomas Edison's cogeneration plant, which was fueled with pulverized coal, our Solar Cogeneration and Solar Trigeneration energy systems are fueled with the energy of the sun! And, while natural gas is a "cleaner" fuel, it still has its problems in that it is a limited resource and generates greenhouse gas emissions. Natural gas also have had extreme price swings and has a history of price volatility. Natural gas prices have gone from a high of $17.00/mmbtu to a recent low of under $3.00/mmbtu.

Regarding pulverized coal, yes, it's cheap in terms of the cost of generating electricity, but too many people forget about the "externalities" of pulverized coal that is not reflected in the "cheap" costs of generating electricity from pulverized coal. These costs not accounted for are the huge environmental cost relating to the use of pulverized coal. Pound for pound, pulverized coal and coal fired power plants generate more greenhouse gas emissions than any other fossil fuel. There are also the costs related to the health and safety issues of the miners that mine the coal. And, the costs to the environment in terms of the ever-increasing amounts of mercury that are "dumped" into the environment from coal fired power plants, is also not reflected in the "cheap" price of generating power from pulverized coal.

And talk about "cheap" costs of generating power and energy, there is nothing cheaper than free!!!!

The owners of the Audubon Nature Center never receive any monthly natural gas or electric bills!

Solar Trigeneration is an EcoGeneration solution. EcoGeneration refers to a power and energy system that uses the “natural” energy or fuel that is available for a specific site or location. Such energy or fuel includes, solar, wind, BioMethane, geothermal, and ocean power, including ocean tidal and ocean thermal energy conversion. For example, in the desert areas of the Southwestern U.S. , there is an abundance of solar energy. Therefore, home-owners and business owners in this part of the country should seriously consider an EcoGeneration system (“ecogen system”) that optimizes the opportunities available through solar energy

Today, the cause of the summer peak electric demand, electric supply problems, and black-outs, are the result of the energy crisis in California, primarily attributed to the air conditioning load. Over 40 percent of the electricity generated every day goes is used for air conditioning. At this time of year, the electric utilities are forced to turn on all of their power plants to generate the “peak” demands required by the customers, primarily for air-conditioning. This means that all of the efficient power plants, the inefficient power plants, along with all of the “peaking” power plants have to run to generate the electricity needed. The high cost of meeting the peak demand is passed on to the consumers with rates of $.20+ per kWh during the summer months. For fixed income seniors living in desert communities, they are already forced to conserve on energy, food, water, and other necessities of life.

Greater Demands on California’s Limited Electric Supply, Lack of New Electric Power Supplies, and This Summer’s Heat Wave are Compounding the Problem Leading to the “Perfect Electric Storm”

Many people will remember the movie “The Perfect Storm” from several years ago, when several storms came together in the northeastern part of the

U.S.

to produce a deadly and catastrophic “perfect” storm. Today, a different type of “perfect storm” is brewing in California. The storm that’s looming on the horizon in California is a “perfect electric storm” wherein the supply of electricity from the electric utility company’s power plants are unable to keep-up with the demand – meaning a black-out, or loss of electricity, like the black-outs from previous years, and like the northeastern black-out from 2003.

The most likely time of year for a black-out in California, unfortunately, is the summer, when air-conditioners are running at the maximum, and placing the maximum load on California’s electricity supply. Should such a black-out occur in the desert areas of California, where daily high temperatures routinely reach 110 degrees and higher, and where a significant percentage of the population is comprised of retired and senior citizens, and should the black-out be prolonged, a number of deaths will be the likely outcome. People, and especially the elderly, simply cannot tolerate prolonged high temperatures

How Do We Prevent the “Perfect Electric Storm” from Occurring in California and Other Regions in the U.S.?

Another major concern is how do we prevent the “Perfect Electric Storm” from happening, like the Northeast Blackout several summers ago, especially for people living in the desert? California ’s energy authorities are warning of a possible energy crisis during the hot summer months, due to the excessive and prolonged summer temperatures where demand increases by over 40 percent. Compounding the problem is the rising demand for electricity due to population growth and the limited transmission capacity in some areas in the region. According to the California Energy Commission, the State must build three natural gas-fired 500-megawatt peaking power plants, every year, just to keep up with the growing demands of electricity. Failure to keep up with demand means The problem is getting worse due to the population growth in the Inland Empire , Coachella Valley and Antelope Valley. The projected power gap for the coming summers remains bleak.

Governor Schwarzenegger’s “Million Solar Roofs” program and the passage of the 2005 Federal Energy Act will be the foundation to create a “Perfect Solar Storm” to trigger the Solar Economy throughout California.

With the threat of California’s seniors and elderly dying from heat exhaustion due to power outages, black-outs, rolling black-outs and the rising costs of electricity and natural gas, combined with the continuing impact of global warming, the perfect solution is to create a Solar Revolution by cooling, heating and powering the desert with solar energy and technologies like Solar Cogeneration or Solar Trigeneration.

The hot water from the Solar Thermal Collectors on the roof of the Audubon is pumped here for producing the building's heating, cooling and domestic hot water.
Hot water is stored in the tank on the left for overnight.

What Absorption Chillers and How Does They Work?

Absorption chillers use heat instead of mechanical energy to provide cooling. A thermal compressor consists of an absorber, a generator, a pump, and a throttling device, and replaces the mechanical vapor compressor.

In the chiller, refrigerant vapor from the evaporator is absorbed by a solution mixture in the absorber. This solution is then pumped to the generator. There the refrigerant re-vaporizes using a waste steam heat source. The refrigerant-depleted solution then returns to the absorber via a throttling device. The two most common refrigerant/ absorbent mixtures used in absorption chillers are water/lithium bromide and ammonia/water.

Compared with mechanical chillers, absorption chillers have a low coefficient of performance (COP = chiller load/heat input). However, absorption chillers can substantially reduce operating costs because they are powered by low-grade waste heat. Vapor compression chillers, by contrast, must be motor- or engine-driven.

Low-pressure, steam-driven absorption chillers are available in capacities ranging from 100 to 1,500 tons. Absorption chillers come in two commercially available designs: single-effect and double-effect. Single-effect machines provide a thermal COP of 0.7 and require about 18 pounds of 15-pound-per-square-inch-gauge (psig) steam per ton-hour of cooling. Double-effect machines are about 40% more efficient, but require a higher grade of thermal input, using about 10 pounds of 100- to 150-psig steam per ton-hour.

In single-effect absorption chillers, all condensing heat cools and condenses in the condenser. From there it is released to the cooling water. A double-effect machine adopts a higher heat efficiency of condensation and divides the generator into a high-temperature and a low-temperature generator.

Determine the cost-effectiveness of displacing a portion of your cooling load with a waste steam absorption chiller by taking the following steps:

Absorption Chillers Refrigeration Cycle

The basic cooling cycle is the same for the absorption and electric chillers. Both systems use a low-temperature liquid refrigerant that absorbs heat from the water to be cooled and converts to a vapor phase (in the evaporator section). The refrigerant vapors are then compressed to a higher pressure (by a compressor or a generator), converted back into a liquid by rejecting heat to the external surroundings (in the condenser section), and then expanded to a low- pressure mixture of liquid and vapor (in the expander section) that goes back to the evaporator section and the cycle is repeated.

The basic difference between the electric chillers and absorption chillers is that an electric chiller uses an electric motor for operating a compressor used for raising the pressure of refrigerant vapors and absorption chillers use the heat for compressing refrigerant vapors to a high-pressure. The rejected heat from the power-generation equipment (e.g. turbines, microturbines, and engines) may be used with an absorption chiller to provide the cooling in a CHP system.

The basic absorption cycle employs two fluids, the absorbate or refrigerant, and the absorbent. The most commonly fluids are water as the refrigerant and lithium bromide as the absorbent. These fluids are separated and recombined in the absorption cycle. In the absorption cycle the low-pressure refrigerant vapor is absorbed into the absorbent releasing a large amount of heat. The liquid refrigerant/absorbent solution is pumped to a high-operating pressure generator using significantly less electricity than that for compressing the refrigerant for an electric chiller. Heat is added at the high-pressure generator from a gas burner, steam, hot water or hot gases. The added heat causes the refrigerant to desorb from the absorbent and vaporize. The vapors flow to a condenser, where heat is rejected and condense to a high-pressure liquid. The liquid is then throttled though an expansion valve to the lower pressure in the evaporator where it evaporates by absorbing heat and provides useful cooling. The remaining liquid absorbent, in the generator passes through a valve, where its pressure is reduced, and then is recombined with the low-pressure refrigerant vapors returning from the evaporator so the cycle can be repeated.

Absorption chillers are used to generate cold water (44°F) that is circulated to air handlers in the distribution system for air conditioning.

"Indirect-fired" absorption chillers use steam, hot water or hot gases steam from a boiler, turbine or engine generator, or fuel cell as their primary power input. Theses chillers can be well suited for integration into a CHP system for buildings by utilizing the rejected heat from the electric generation process, thereby providing high operating efficiencies through use of otherwise wasted energy.

"Direct-fired" systems contain natural gas burners; rejected heat from these chillers can be used to regenerate desiccant dehumidifiers or provide hot water.

Commercially, absorption chillers can be single-effect or multiple-effect. The above schematic refers to a single-effect absorption chiller. Multiple-effect absorption chillers are more efficient and discussed below.

In single-effect absorption chillers, the heat released during the chemical process of absorbing refrigerant vapor into the liquid stream, rich in absorbent, is rejected to the environment. In a multiple-effect absorption chiller, some of this energy is used as the driving force to generate more refrigerant vapor. The more vapor generated per unit of heat or fuel input, the greater the cooling capacity and the higher the overall operating efficiency.

Double-effect absorption chillers uses two generators paired with a single condenser, absorber, and evaporator. It requires a higher temperature heat input to operate and therefore they are limited in the type of electrical generation equipment they can be paired with when used in a CHP System.

Triple-effect absorption chillers can achieve even higher efficiencies than the double-effect chillers. These absorption chillers require still higher elevated operating temperatures that can limit choices in materials and refrigerant/absorbent pairs. Triple-effect chillers are under development by manufacturers working in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Energy.

Polycrystalline silicon, also referred to as "semicrystalline silicon," "polysilicon," "poly-Si," or just "poly," is a material consisting of small silicon crystals. Polycrystalline silicon cells are recognized by their visible grain known as the “metal flake effect.”

Semiconductor grade as well as "solar grade" polycrystalline silicon is converted to "single crystal" silicon - meaning that the randomly associated crystallites of silicon in "polycrystalline silicon" are converted to a large "single" crystal. Single crystal silicon is used to manufacture most Si-based microelectronic devices. Polycrystalline silicon can be as high in purity as 99.9999%.

Copper Indium Gallium diSelenide (CuInSe2) is a material that provides an extremely high absorption of light ( 99%) to be absorbed in the first micron of the material. Copper Indium Gallium diSelenide is projected to be the revolutionary material that some are saying, could put typical "central" power plants and some electric utilities, out of business, as it will be much cheaper for customers to generate their own onsite power with Thin Film Photovoltaics made from these materials.

When additional small amounts of Gallium is added to Copper Indium diSelenide, this increases its' light-absorbing band gap, thereby making the solar panel more closely match the solar spectrum of the sun. This, in turn, increases the voltage and the efficiency of the Thin Film Photovoltaics solar panel.

The conversion efficiency of Copper Indium Gallium diSelenide PV technologies is very stable over time, meaning its power output remains stable over many years, while the power output of many other PV materials can rapidly decline with time.

Building Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV) are solar energy systems that are integrated into a part of the building, that serve as the building's exterior or the building's skin.

Commercial buildings and facilities (including houses) that integrate their own solar power systems into the building's exteriors, are referred to as "power buildings."

Without a doubt, the most exciting technology in the solar power industry is "Thin Film Photovoltaics." Thin Film Photovoltaics technology represents the next big thing in renewable energy and solar power as it integrates nanotechnologies into the production of solar photovoltaics.

According to the Department of Energy, the recent technological advances in thin film photovoltaics make this a very exciting time to be in the solar energy industry. These advances have led to many new developments in the components and manufacturing of thin film photovoltaics. This has made thin film photovoltaics cheaper to manufacture as they are also now easier to install since they are extremely versatile, flexible, bendable, and much lighter.

Thin film photovoltaics have led many to believe that as much as 50% of our nation's future power will be generated by "power buildings" that integrate "building integrated photovoltaics" or "BIPV" into the building's skin or exterior surfaces, that convert sunlight into "pollution free power" for use in the building. This also designates these buildings (and homes) as "Net Zero Energy Buildings" and make the option for going grid-free, or not connecting to the grid, a real possibility.

According to the Department of Energy, the market potential for printed electronics will grow into a $47 billion market by 2018. Thin film photovoltaics represents a significant portion of this market - and based on this heavily researched solar technology, thin film photovoltaics now represents a $20 billion/year industry in the U.S.

The solar PV panels produced under the thin film photovoltaics umbrella have the potential to produce power significantly cheaper power than today’s typical silicon-based PV panels. The panels are usually made in the form of a monolithic piece of glass, upon which various thin films are deposited, although a number of firms are working on depositing the materials on a substrate, such as stainless steel or plastic.

Amorphous Silicon had the largest share of the thin film photovoltaics market through 2006. It has been researched for the longest period of time, may be the best understood material of the three and has been commercial for the longest. Cadmium Telluride, a very toxic chemical and has the remaining share and is growing.

About Us

We provide renewable energy engineering services and turnkey installations of our solar energy systems for commercial, municipal, government, schools and utility clients with projects located in the U.S., Canada Central America and the Caribbean. In many cases, we may also be able to provide project finance or investment.

Solar Electric Power Systems (PV)

Solar electric power systems transform sunlight into electricity. Sunlight is an abundant resource. Every minute the sun bathes the Earth in as much energy as the world consumes in an entire year.

Solar cells employ special materials called semiconductors that create electricity when exposed to light. Solar electric systems are quiet and easy to use, and they require no fuel other than sunlight. Because they contain no moving parts, they are durable, reliable, and easy to maintain.

How It Works

Solar cells, also known as photovoltaic (PV) cells, do the work of making electricity. Several types of solar electric technology are under development, but four—crystalline silicon (a form of refined beach sand), thin films, concentrators, and thermophotovoltaics—are illustrative of the range of technologies. Solar cells are connected to a variety of other components to make a solar electric power system.

Crystalline Silicon

Crystalline silicon solar cells are used in more than half of all solar electric devices. Like most semiconductor devices, they include a positive layer (on the bottom) and a negative layer (on the top) that create an electrical field inside the cell. When a photon of light strikes a semiconductor, it releases electrons (see animation). The free electrons flow through the solar cell's bottom layer to a connecting wire as direct current (DC) electricity.

Some solar cells are made from polycrystalline silicon, which consists of several small silicon crystals. Polycrystalline silicon solar cells are cheaper to produce but somewhat less efficient than single-crystal silicon.

A simple silicon solar cell can power a watch or calculator. However, it produces only a tiny amount of electricity. Connected together, solar cells form modules that can generate substantial amounts of power. Modules are the building blocks of solar electric systems, which can produce enough power for a house, a rural medical clinic, or an entire village. Large arrays of solar electric modules can power satellites or provide electricity for utilities.

Solar Electric Power System Components

In addition to modules, several components are needed to complete a solar electric power system.

Many systems include batteries, battery chargers, a backup generator, and a controller so that people in solar-powered homes and buildings can turn on the lights at night or run televisions or appliances on cloudy days. Grid-connected systems don't require batteries or backup generators because they use the grid for backup power. Some remote system applications, such as those used to pump water, do not require a backup power source.

Diagram showing how solar modules can be connected to a DC-AC inverter, battery bank, and a backup generator to provide a continuous source of power in stand-alone applications.

Components of a typical standalone PV system using crystalline silicon technology. (Source: Solar Electric Power Association)

Solar electric power systems can incorporate inverters or power control units to transform the DC electricity produced by the solar cells into alternating current (AC) to run AC appliances or sell to a utility grid. Complete systems usually include safety disconnects, fuses, and a grounding circuit as well.

Thin Films

Solar electric thin films are lighter, more resilient, and easier to manufacture than crystalline silicon modules. The best-developed thin-film technology uses amorphous silicon, in which the atoms are not arranged in any particular order as they would be in a crystal. An amorphous silicon film only one micron thick can absorb 90% of the usable solar energy falling on it. Other thin-film materials include cadmium telluride and copper indium diselenide. Substantial cost savings are possible with this technology because thin films require relatively little semiconductor materials.

Thin films are produced as large, complete modules, not as individual cells that must be mounted in frames and wired together. They are manufactured by applying extremely thin layers of semiconductor material to a low-cost backing such as glass or plastic. Electrical contacts, antireflective coatings, and protective layers are also applied directly to the backing material. Thin films conform to the shape of the backing, a feature that allows them to be used in such innovative products as flexible solar electric roofing shingles.

Concentrators

Concentrators use optical lenses (similar to plastic magnifying glasses) or mirrors to concentrate the sunlight that falls on a solar cell. With a concentrator to magnify the light intensity, the solar cell produces more electricity. Today, most solar cells in concentrators are made from crystalline silicon. However, materials such as gallium arsenide and gallium indium phosphide are more efficient than silicon in solar electric concentrators and will likely see more use in the future. These materials are now used in communications satellites and other space applications.

Concentrators produce more electricity using less of the expensive semiconductor material than other solar electric systems. A basic concentrator unit consists of a lens to focus the light, a solar cell assembly, a housing element, a secondary concentrator to reflect off-center light rays onto the cell, a mechanism to dissipate excess heat, and various contacts and adhesives. The basic unit can be combined into modules of varying sizes and shapes. Concentrators only work with direct sunlight and operate most effectively in sunny, dry climates. They must be used with tracking systems to keep them pointed toward the sun.

Thermophotovoltaics

Thermophotovoltaic (TPV) devices convert heat into electricity in much the same way that other PV devices convert light into electricity. The difference is that TPV technology uses semiconductors "tuned" to the longer-wavelength, invisible infrared radiation emitted by warm objects. This technology is cleaner, quieter, and simpler than conventional power generation using steam turbines and generators.

TPV converters are relatively maintenance-free because they contain no moving parts. In addition to using solar energy, they can convert heat from any high-temperature heat source, including combustion of a fuel such as natural gas or propane, into electricity. TPV converters produce virtually no carbon monoxide and few emissions. They may be used in the future in gas furnaces that generate their own electricity for self-ignition (during power outages) and in portable generators and battery chargers.

Advantages

Solar electric systems offer many advantages. Standalone systems can eliminate the need to build expensive new power lines to remote locations. For rural and remote applications, solar electricity can cost less than any other means of producing electricity. Solar electric systems can also connect to existing power lines to boost electricity output during times of high demand such as on hot, sunny days when air conditioners are on.

Solar electric systems are flexible. Solar electric modules can stand on the ground or be mounted on rooftops. They can also be built into glass skylights and walls. They can be made to look like roof shingles and can even come equipped with devices to turn their DC output into the same AC utilities deliver to wall sockets. These advances mean individual homeowners and businesses can relieve pressure on local utilities struggling to meet the increasing demand for electricity.

More than 30 states offer grid-connected solar electric system owners the chance to save money on their energy bills by feeding any excess power their solar electric system produces into the utility grid—an arrangement called net metering.

Solar power systems require minimal maintenance. They run quietly and efficiently without polluting. They are easy to combine with other types of electric generators such as wind, hydro, or natural gas turbines. They can charge batteries to make solar electricity continuously available.

For utilities, large-scale solar electric power plants can help meet demand for new power generation, especially in distributed applications. A solar electric power plant is created from multiple arrays that are interconnected electronically. Solar electric plants are easier to site and are quicker to build than conventional power plants. They are also easy to expand incrementally—by adding more modules—as power demand increases.

Solar electric power systems are good for the environment. When solar electric technologies displace fossil fuels for pumping water, lighting homes, or running appliances, they reduce the greenhouse gases and pollutants emitted into the atmosphere. The use of solar electric systems is particularly important in developing nations because it can help avert the expected increases in emissions of greenhouse gases caused by the growing demand for electricity in those countries.

Solar electric technologies also benefit the U.S. economy by creating jobs in U.S. companies. Exporting solar electric technologies to developing nations expands U.S. markets while protecting the global environment.

Disadvantages

Although solar electric systems make financial sense in remote areas that lack access to power lines, they are usually more expensive than fossil fuels for grid-connected applications.

This disadvantage is significant for utilities considering large-scale solar electric power plants. Although solar electricity costs considerably more than electricity generated by conventional plants, regulatory agencies often require utilities to supply electricity for the lowest cash cost.

Utilities view solar electric power plants differently than they view conventional power plants. Solar electric modules produce electricity intermittently—only when the sun shines. Their output varies with the weather and disappears altogether at night. Integrating solar electricity into a utility system requires creative planning.

Applications

Aerial photo showing solar electric arrays and solar hot-water systems installed on the roof of the Georgia Tech University Aquatic Center.

A combination of solar electric arrays and pool-heating solar collectors were used to provide power and heat to the Georgia Tech University Aquatic Center, site of the 1996 Olympic swimming competition. (Credit: Heliocol)

Solar electricity has powered satellites since the dawn of the space program. It has run remote communications outposts high in the mountains and turned on the lights, kept medicines cold, and pumped water in rural areas for more than 30 years. Small solar cells are used to power wristwatches, calculators, and other electronic gadgets. More recently, solar electric systems have been used to provide supplemental power to homes and commercial buildings in cities.

Solar electric technology has important roles to play in both the developing and developed worlds. From the farmer irrigating his crops in rural Mexico to an innovative lighting system for an Olympic sports arena, solar electric solutions abound.

Electric utilities harness solar electricity for distributed applications—near substations or at the end of overloaded power lines, for example, to avoid or defer costly line upgrades. They use solar electricity during hot, sunny periods when the demand for air conditioning stretches conventional power generation to its limit. The Sacramento Municipal Utility District, for example, uses large solar electric arrays as part of its power generation mix. Utilities also rely on solar electricity to power remote, standalone monitoring systems.

Consumers and builders are integrating solar electric modules into their homes and offices. Innovative solar electric technologies can replace conventional roofing and facade materials in new buildings. Solar electric roofing shingles, for example, are being used in some new residences. In grid-connected applications, solar electricity supplies some of a consumer's energy needs; the local utility provides the rest.

Standalone solar electric systems power a variety of applications far from the reaches of the power grid. These applications include remote communications systems such as television and radio transmitters and receivers, telephone systems, and microwave repeaters. Standalone solar electric power is also used to prevent corrosion of metal pipes, tanks, bridges, and buildings.

Many remote residences worldwide use solar electricity as their source of power. For instance, more than 100,000 vacation homes in Scandinavia rely solely on solar electric technology to run lights and appliances.

Villages around the world are building solar electric systems to bring electricity to their homes and local industries, often for the first time. To make the maximum use of available resources, village power is typically produced by a hybrid power system that combines solar electricity with diesel backup generators and sometimes another renewable energy technology such wind power. Villages also use standalone solar electric systems for pumping water—an application shared by rural farmers and ranchers in the United States.

The Renewable Energy Institute (REI) does not take a stand in the debate on global warming, and if there is global warming, is it "anthropogenic" or is it caused by the sun, or the sun's normal cycles. Or, if there is " climate change," is it "global cooling" caused by the water vapor in the atmosphere? The stand we take is that we need to invest in renewable energy technologies, producing clean, renewable energy that doesn't pollute the planet, and end America's addiction to crude oil from foreign countries where we now spend OVER $1 Billion/day, to buy the oil we need, and some of those suppliers (muslims in foreign countries) take our dollars and make bombs and bullets and send our boys back in body bags. We need to stop this, and put American's back to work, generating "green power and energy" right here at home.

At the Renewable Energy Institute, we are waiting for the "true" scientists who doing the real research, to provide us with the science and answers critically needed to formulate correct policy - and not the phony " scientists" who are following politically-motivated and profit-driven agendas of the United Nations and government leaders. These phony scientists are not interested in conducting real scientific research. Their very livelihoods are dependent on the government grants to fund their phony research that have pre-determined conclusions before and "research" is conducted.

Political-interference by governments, governmental agencies, and bureaucrats that hand out billions of tax-payers dollars to phony scientists to conduct "junk science" and research, expect the conclusions that supports anthropogenic global warming, or climate change.

When scientists conclude in their research that they find no evidence of anthropogenic climate change or global warming, they are summarily dismissed, and black-balled from their communities and colleagues, and never again receive funding or grants. Grants and funding by government bureaucrats with politically-driven agendas to "scientists" expecting their pre-determined results and conclusions supporting anthropogenic global warming must stop.

Taxpayers have bankrolled the oil and gas industry, and the coal industry for 100 years now, and the nuclear industry for 50 years, to keep these dirty fuels and energy "cheap." Take away the tax-payer incentives and tax dollars, and we believe the real cost of gasoline, would be similar to the gasoline cost in Europe - $7.00 - $8.00/gallon!

In the meantime, our U.S. Military is spending billions of tax-payer dollars each year protecting the Straits of Hormuz where much of the world's crude oil is produced and shipped through the straits' international shipping lanes. Each day, hundreds of "very large crude carriers" pass through the Straits of Hormuz carrying oil from OPEC and the Middle-East to the U.S. and many other countries.

Isn't it time we take some of the tax-payer dollars supporting the nuclear, coal and oil and gas industries, and start incentivizing clean, renewable energy technologies that don't pollute or harm the environment in any way? Isn't it time that America ends its reliance on non-sustainable energy sources and stop over $1 billion every day, to oil suppliers from foreign countries, and start putting this money in "solar on every rooftop?!?

Regarding the harm being caused to our planet from energy use, far more harm is being done to the planet, as well as to people and plants and animals, particularly fish, from the mercury emissions from coal fired power plants than from the coal fired power plants' greenhouse gas emissions. We surmise that if any polar bears have died as a result of an environmental problem, it was more likely from the high levels of mercury in their food chain, than from greenhouse gas emissions.

The Renewable Energy Institute is supporting and advancing renewable energy technologies, as well as reducing and eliminating greenhouse gas emissions and the fossil-fuel problems related to America's oil addiction and ending our dependence on foreign oil. The renewable energy technologies we support are already deemed to be economic, viable and practical. Solutions such as Solar Trigeneration energy systems (see www.SolarTrigeneration.com for more information) for any kind of facility or building - office buildings, shopping centers, data centers, university campuses, etc.

Since 2003, a Solar Trigeneration energy system has been providing 100% of the power and energy for a 5,300 sq. ft. office building near downtown Los Angeles, and doing so without any connection to the electric grid, whether its 12 noon or 12 midnite!

The Renewable Energy Institute is also involved in research and advocacy of "Net Zero Energy" (see: www.NetZeroEnergy.com for more information) and "Net Zero Energy Buildings" (see: www.NetZeroEnergyBuildings.com for more information). Net Zero Energy Buildings generate as much (or more) energy than they use, and export their excess power to the grid, which we believe needs to be updated into a "Transmission Superhighway."

The past 10 years indicates the opposite of "global warming" has occurred - that the "Earths Fever" has and that global cooling has taken place.

Weather, on a daily basis, or even an annual basis, is not climate, and climate is not weather.

"Climate change" is always taking place, from one day to the next, and one week to the next, as well as one year to the next. The planet's climate is an ever-evolving, changing and dynamic process.

Again, researchers and scientists need to refrain from being political, and stay out of politics, and politicians need to stay out of the way of the scientists and researchers, and let them do their work. Politicians, government leaders and bureaucrats scientists need true and accurate data and climate research from scientists that do not have a political agenda.

In the meantime, as there may still be 30 years of research before there are conclusive answers concerning anthropogenic climate change, can we "risk" 30 years of our children and grand children's future, should there is a link between climate change and greenhouse gas emissions? Should we not err on the side of caution?

Marion King Hubbert was a geologist and scientist who worked at Shell Oil company's research lab in Houston, Texas. Hubbert made several important contributions to geology, geophysics and petroleum geology. Hubbert is most recognized for the "Hubbert Curve" and " Hubbert Peak Theory" which is now referred to as " Peak Oil.

Hubbert's life work determined that the world has a finite amount of petroleum that can be produced. (Similarly, there is a finite amount of coal.) Many scientists and engineers believe we have reached Hubbert's "peak oil" limit. Hubbert's espouses that when 50% of domestic crude oil production has been reached, that there will be such significant upward demand on prices of the limited supplies of oil production, that the U.S. economy will experience severe economic, social, and political turmoil.

Hubbert's Peak Oil predictions have proven to be true and this is validated as the U.S. in the early 1970's produced about 60% of its' oil demand and imported 40%. That equation has flipped since then, because our domestic oil production has been on the decline since 1970, so now, due to our declining domestic oil production, we have to import 60% of our oil supplies, to meet our country's oil/energy demands.

How severe our economic calamity and next "oil shock" will depend upon a number of factors, including when this occurs, as well as the following:

1. the dependence of the individual country upon its own crude oil production to meet its energy needs and to subsidize consumer imports;

4. the degree to which our country had prepared in advance for this inevitable geological and economic calamity.

Examples of past "oil shocks" and the economic and political calamities that followed:

United States: Our peak crude oil production of domestic oil occurred in 1970; the first "oil shock" and oil crisis followed in 1973 with the Arab/OPEC Oil Embargo.

Iran: Their peak crude oil production occurred in 1974; They had their islamic revolution 1979 that overturned government and replaced it with radical islam.

Soviet Union: Their peak crude oil production was in 1989; what happened next?
Their country disintegrated and the collapse of the Soviet Union followed in 1991.

Indonesia: Their peak crude oil production was in 1991; their financial and government crisis followed in 1997.

Iraq: Iraq's crude oil production was in 1989; they then invaded Kuwait (for their oil) in 1991.

Using Mr. Hubbert's predictions, that beginning around 2000 we would see peak (global) oil production, then, if the country's not weaning themselves off of their oil addiction, and had not begun making the switch to renewable energy, that the negative economic and political calamities would soon follow, including ever-increasing prices of energy that is from fossil fuels.

Now is the time to begin weaning ourselves off of fossil fuels and making the transition to and increasing the use of renewable energy. If you don't believe in climate change, or global warming, GREAT! Join us in the switch to renewable energy and a fossil-free economy!

America Has INCREASED its' Dependence on Foreign
Sources of Energy by 50% Since 1973.

America is even more "addicted" to foreign oil today, than we were in 1973 - 1974 when OPEC, Saudi Arabia and other suppliers from the Middle-East stopped selling us their fossil fuels, and created a significant blow to our economy.

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